The Development of the Boat and the Class
By John Brodsky

Since the Comet was first designed in 1932, the history of the Class has been one intertwined not only with the personalities of Comet sailors but also with the personalities of the boats themselves. In spinning yarns of Comet tales it is apparent that some boats have achieved greater fame than the sailors who guided them. Despite a background of legendary boats and sailors, the history of the class can be traced along three lines. The story of the Comet is one of an early rapid growth in numbers, continuous technical change and innovation. The evolution of the class has not always progressed smoothly. Stormy times have sometimes accompanied the technological developments of the class.

Despite the many changes witnessed by the Comet, the class has held fervently to the one design doctrine. Efforts of the class organization to maintain both the integrity and true one design nature of the boats are evidenced by the continued success of many old wooden boats in today's fiberglass environment. Most recently, the top three finishers of the 1981 Internationals sailed wooden boats. These efforts have largely contributed to the long term strength of the Comet class.

EARLY CLASS HISTORY
At the request of Mrs. Elliot Wheeler, C. Lowndes Johnson of Easton, Md., a past international Star champion, designed the Comet in 1932. Mrs. Wheeler had wanted a boat for her two sons that would be small but fast and easy to handle.

In March of 1932 the plans for the "Crab" appeared in Yachting Magazine in an article entitled "A Younger Brother of the Star for the Chesapeake Bay". Many favorable comments followed the sleek new 16 footer. Following the publication of this article, Mr. Johnson received numerous requests for plans of his newly designed craft. It is estimated that over 100 Comets were built in short order by people all over the United States.

The real boost to the growth of the Comet, however, came with the 1933 New York Boat Show at which a model of the "Star Junior" was displayed in the Yachting booth. At that time Dr. John Eiman and Dr. Wilbur H. Haines, Jr., both from the Yacht Club of Stone Harbor, were seeking a small centerboard boat that would be suitable for their local waters. After thorough examination of the little craft they recommended that the Yacht Club of Stone Harbor adopt the "Star Junior" as its one design class - which it did.

Stone Harbor was not alone in its early move toward the Comet as the one design class for its yacht club. A fleet of five Comets had been organized in Medford, Mass. and four had been built at City Island, New York. In recognition of these and other developing fleets, Dr. Eiman urged that the class be organized. Subsequently, in February 1933, a meeting was arranged for enthusiasts of the new boat. Convening in the office of Yachting magazine and with the help of editor, Herbert L. Stone, preliminary rules were drawn up and the name officially changed to "CometÓ. George Elder, President of the Star class objected to the boats being called Star Juniors because the Star class was planning to short rig old Stars and use that name for their designation. Wanting a name relative to the Star, the "Comet" was adopted.

Elected officers of the newly organized class were Dr. John Eiman, President; John Black of Medford, Vice President; Dr. Wilber H. Haines, Jr., Secretary Treasurer; and John Frye, Corresponding Secretary. These officers, along with C. Lowndes Johnson and Herbert Stone, comprised the Executive Committee.

THE FIRST NATIONAL CHAMPIONSHIP
The first national championship for the class was held on September 7 & 8, 1935 at the Raritan Yacht Club, Perth Amboy, N.J. The regatta received considerable coverage from the New York press, which no doubt contributed to the early popularity of the class. Full-page headlines of the forthcoming event were run on the sports pages of the Perth Amboy Evening News with diagrams and schedules of the races to be held.

The three-race event was won by 15 year old Roger Willcox in his home-built boat #66 ESCARGOT. Later in his sailing career Roger was to participate in the defense of the America's Cup. He and his brother, Warner and his sister, Sally were to become major figures in the early days of Comet racing. ESCARGOT again captured the championship in 1937 skippered this time, however, by Warner. Roger never regained the championship but was runner-up in 1936, 1937 and 1938 sailing SCUD. Sally, at age 15, finished runner-up in the 1939 National Championships also sailing SCUD.

Future 12 Meter and Olympic sailors among the ranks of Cometeers included Dick Bertram, Bus Mosbacher, Norman Freeman and Bill Lyon. Later sailors who dominated the Comet class and influenced its history include the Red Dragon Canoe Club pair of Jim Merrill (two time National Champion) and Phil Somervell (four time Champion) and major rival Howard Lippincott of the Riverton Yacht Club (four time Champion). In total, seven other sailors have twice captured the National title.

GROWTH OF THE CLASS
Following the organization of the Class, the preWorld War II years witnessed impressive growth in both the number of fleets chartered and Comets built. By the end of 1937, only five years after the design of the boat, 40 fleets had been chartered including ones in Ohio, Michigan, Illinois and Vancover, British Columbia. Over 1000 boats were built prior to 1940. In 1941 the CCYRA was represented in 27 states, five provinces of Canada, the Panama Canal Zone, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. By 1950 over 3000 boats were listed in the class registry with 125 organized fleets. Bermuda was added in 1969 with two fleets.

Contributing in part to the rapid development of the Comet class was the promotional role played by Yachting magazine. Yachting's promotional activity was one of "good press" and event coverage for the new class.

THE TERRITORIES
The rapid growth of the Comet class caused concern among members as to how the number of participants competing in the National Championships could be limited. As early as 1941 it was recognized that some selection process would eventually be needed. Although the War curtailed the sailing of the National Championship in 1942, 1943 and 1944, the class continued to grow in number. The name of the championship event was changed to the "Internationals" after 1945.

With the 1947 Internationals held on Lake Cayuga at Ithaca, New York, it became evident that fleet size needed to be held at a manageable level. Seventy two boats competed in that event, the most ever to attend a Championship regatta. Several schemes were proposed for limiting the number of participants to 35 boats. Finally, it was decided to create "Territories" from which a certain number of sailors would be eligible to compete in the Internationals. This number would be based upon the percent of dues paying members from each territory. Six territories were defined and the first Territorial eliminations were held in 1949. This method was used every year until 1976 when the championship event again was held as an open regatta. The only changes to the Territorial scheme were increases in the total number of boats from 35 to 40, and eventually to 42.

MID WINTERS
The first Mid-Winter Championship Regatta was held in 1939 in Puerto Rico and sponsored by the Club Nautico de San Juan. Twenty two boats, eight from the United States, competed for the Don Q. perpetual trophy. Winner of this event was Edward K. Merrill competing in SHUFL Y.

To make transportation less costly, the Club Nautico incurred the round trip cost of shipping boats to San Juan. Coinciding with the Ponce de Leon Carnival, entertainment at this Carribean event was especially unusual and festive. Activities planned for the sailors included the Coronation Ball for the Queen of the Festival, fireworks, Masquerade Ball, Carnival Dance and Historical Parade of the EI Morro castle. The last Mid Winter Championship held in Puerto Rico was sailed in 1951. Since then this event has been held in Miami, Florida.

TECHNICAL CHANGES
Continued change in the construction and layout of Comets has been a major part of class history. The technical evolution of the boat has been influenced by several factors. One predominant factor has been the emergence of new materials for use in boat construction and equipment. Another important factor, however, was those Comet sailors whose talents as skippers were reflected in their innovative skills in boat construction and improvement of existing equipment. Two other aspects of the Comet also contributed to the technical changes witnessed by the class. The Comet was designed as a boat that could be built at home with modest boat building skills. In its early days this fact largely contributed to the class's growth and wide geographic prominence. Differences among the home built boats resulted from the rather liberal tolerances initially permitted by the class. Several hull specifications defining the degree of arc of the bottom, waterline length and other measurements were left somewhat open. Acting as a check to these factors some class members promoted a strong policy for remaining a true one-design class. The long-term viability of boats was the doctrine held by many to be the mainstay of the class strength. In the course of the Comet history these factors, however, were to come in conflict on many occasions and result in some rather stormy times. Of primary concern to early builders were the durability, long life and buoyancy of the boats. Lacking the glues and wood sealers that would come later, these early boats tended to be of heavy and sturdy construction and had to be caulked to stay dry.

Sailboats in the early days of one design racing were typically wet sailed and had canvas decks, factors that with time (soaking up paint and water) contributed to the gradual increase in overall boat weight. Records from the 1947 Comet International Championships revealed an average boat weight of 369 pounds and a maximum weight of 458 pounds! The average weight of the ten top placing boats was 333 pounds and the lightest boat weighed 276 pounds. Quite a range! Rigging on the first boats included heavy, boxy masts held by three stay rigs and "T" booms. Jam cleats were rare and bailers had yet to be invented. Vanging was accomplished by hanging on the boom, which of course, made for wild situations in a blow.

Not until 1962 was a resolution passed allowing the aft section of the foredeck, previously extending well behind the mast, to be moved forward and thereby enable a vang to be attached directly to the base of the mast. Many members of the class were concerned about even this change in the Comet's layout. They feared that the cost and extent of alterations required by this change would be counter to the Comet's nature and detrimental to the class.

The move toward lighter boat construction was seen as early as 1938 with the use of western red cedar and spruce instead of the stronger and heavier woods previously used. Red cedar was highly desirable for its lightweight and its lesser susceptibility to swelling or contraction. Edward K. Merrill in the first of his home built "Fly" boats, #265 SHUFL Y, demonstrated by winning the 1938 National Championship at the age of 65 that light weight construction was more important than excessive strength. It was even said that Mr. Merrill, in his concern for weight, would carry along a scale on trips to a lumberyard to insure the selection of the lightest pieces in the stacks.

Another legendary series of lightweight Comets renowned for their speed were the "Scotch" boats built by the Horner brothers. These boats were also built of lightweight cedar planks on spruce or cedar frames. The Homers were amateur boat builders who lived at home with their mother. Apparently, Mrs. Horner did not approve of boat building at home. As a result, the boys built their Comets in the attic and had to pass finished boats through the attic window on Sundays while their mother was away at church.

Following World War II, builders, both individual and commercial, continued the trend toward lighter boats by replacing heavy cast fittings with lightweight stainless steel designs that had become available. The transition to glued construction was a major shot in the arm for both Comets and one design racing. Boats could now be built that were lighter, more durable and more maintenance free. Gone were the days of caulking the wood seams to keep boats dry and afloat.

Above the waterline, more changes were also taking place. To reduce weight aloft, the heavy box masts gave way to smaller spars supported by multi-staying systems. The eight-stay rig was introduced by James Horner and Jim Merrill. This rig, along with a spruce mast, became a long class standard. With long spreaders, jumpers, intermediate and lower back stays this system allowed for a very light mast that could be highly adjustable. (Although mast bending was not allowed, "accidental" bending was practiced.)

Sails prior to the age of plastics were Egyptian cotton cut largely by Ratsey and Ulmer. Sail adjustments such as outhauls and main downhauls did not come into general use until the late Forties. Since races were often finished downwind in those days, large baggy sails were not uncommon.

Although nylon sails were first permitted in 1946, they were not very successful. Not until the development of orlon and the introduction of the girth measurements were cotton sails made obsolete. Following the orlons came the dacron sails which, along with the aluminum spar and return of the three stay rig, were championed by Norman Freeman in winning the 1961 Internationals. Co-incident with this new material, a new method of jib construction was devised by Jim Merrill. By making a curved and stiffened foot, Merrill created what is now popularly known as a "deck sweeper". This design improved both upwind and offwind sailing. The new plastics also allowed the insertion of windows in the main and jib enhancing safety and tactics in crowded waters.

Modern rigs provide a bewildering array of mast adjustment capabilities. Today's tapered aluminum spars with powerful mast benders and 8:1 shroud adjusters provide perhaps greater versatility than even the old eight stay rigs. They certainly provide more security. Despite the remarkable changes that have transpired in Comet rigs, it is still not unknown, however, for a new suit of sails supported by an old eight staying, to blow by a fleet.

THE GRANDFATHER ERA
Events that transpired with regard to the technical development of the Comet are significant in the illustration of the nature of the class and its history. Thus, it is important to appreciate the "political" environment that surrounded the early days of Comet racing. Several issues deserve mention.

The early days of one design racing reflected the provincial nature of the times. People were less mobile during the depression and war years, which was especially true in matters of sailboat racing. One simply could not pick up and travel off to the National Championships as easily as one can throw a Laser atop of a car today. Trailers were relatively uncommon and racing was generally conducted on a local club basis. Thus, when sailors did travel to compete in major regattas, measures of success were applied equally to individual performances and to the success of the competing clubs. In a sense, sailors were defending the honor of their home turf.

Placed in this context, the Delaware River Valley from Burlington to Camden became a major hot bed of early Comet activity and rivalry. The Merrills and Phil Somervell of the Red Dragon Canoe Club and the Lippincotts at Riverton formed the key players behind the rivalry. (Being invited to Red Dragon to compete in the Dixie Cup Regatta was a high honor in the career of Comet sailors.) With both camps represented by fine boat builders, the inclinations to build better boats were inevitable.

Sailors by nature tend to be avid tinkerers and often times innovators. But the ability to experiment in hull designs was aided considerably by liberal specifications that, depending on the point of measurement, allowed tolerance to be taken advantage of when altering the hull shape.

Flatter hulls were the first major deviation in the Comet's underbody. Sitting lower in the water, these boats also had longer waterlines. Most notable of these boats was the "Fly" series built by the Merrills. In 1946 Q.T. was built of selected red cedar by Harry Horner to lines suggested by Jim Merrill. The boat was extremely lightweight and required only two men to lift her though she had a bronze centerboard. Taking maximum advantage of tolerances, she was very flat athwartships and had a waterline length six inches longer than standard. Bob Levin, her skipper, was an acknowledged lightness fanatic, refusing to allow his crew to bring along even a bottle of water to the racecourse. Following Q.T., many felt the specifications needed to be tightened.

The following year, 1947, a new measurement system was proposed to tighten controls on hull' variations and insure a more one design Comet. Since it was evident that many existing boats would not measure in under the new system, a compromise was made to exempt or "grandfather" all boats measured in under the old system. With this agreement the new tolerances were adopted. Although momentarily put to rest, the conclusion to this issue would not come for 24 years.

The next major development in the Comet was the use of fiberglass cloth and resins. In recognition of its qualities of strength, lightness and reduced cost in hull construction, this new material was a boon for the commercial builder, To implement this use of fiberglass and to insure tight control over hull tolerances, the class pioneered the concept of using a "plug" so that accurate molds could be made and used by boat builders. A plug, mold and sample hull, #X-1, was constructed by Lippincott Boat Works. This method of construction progressed slowly at first and there were problems. Lack of hull stiffness in some cases left the rig slack. Other problems concerned the hull's moment of inertia. In spite of these concerns, fiberglass construction was approved by the class and the first fiberglass boat was launched in 1957.

Following the introduction of the aluminum mast, the next major undertaking was the conversion in1971 from the heavy bronze boards (70 pounds) to the much lighter aluminum boards (20 pounds), Much controversy surrounded this issue. Boat builders were particularly anxious to see this change as it measurably reduced costs and made the Comet more marketable. It also improved the boat's performance by reducing hull displacement. The only drawback of this change was the extra "oomph" now required over the side to keep the boat level.

By the late sixties, the class was becoming split over the issue of the grandfather boats. Many believed their longer waterlines were an unfair advantage and were hurting the development of the fiberglass boats. Others felt, however, that to disqualify the old boats would seriously hurt the class. The issue evolved to a class vote, which upheld the decision to permit the grandfather boats. There was much bitterness at that time which continued until 1971 when it was finally acknowledged that the grandfather boats would no longer be allowed to compete.

The grandfather issue caused considerable heat among the Comet sailors and undoubtedly left some scars. Although many cited the longer waterlines as cause for these "grandfathers'" legendary speed, better notice might have been given to the merits of their skippers.

In actuality, many of the flatter designed hulls were best suited only to heavy air reaching. Sitting lower in the water, the added surface friction of the flatter hulls proved less suited to light air and medium wind conditions. When all the tinkering with hull shape had ended, ironically the best all around hull shape very nearly matched the original design drawn by Lowndes Johnson.

The Comet had certainly evolved into one of the most tightly controlled one-design classes. With strict hull tolerances, a minimum weight requirement and a moment of inertia test (first implemented in 1972) few parameters were now left to question concerning the hull. Intolerant of non-conformers, many sailors have run afoul of the Comet's strict one design nature. Following the 1972 International Championship at Mattituck, three of the top seven finishers, including the winner, were disqualified when it was found that a measurement station on each hull was too full by one quarter inch.

Design changes in the boat during recent years have largely concerned safety rather than speed. Easily susceptible to swamping upon capsize, molded in side tanks were first tried in 1971 to enhance self rescue. The new flotation tanks have been marginally successful. Such equipped boats will not swamp when capsized but they are prone to turn turtle or leave one's mast firmly planted in muddy river bottoms. As an alternative to side tanks, the most recent development of the Comet has been the inclusion of a false bottom, This design also promotes self rescue but is less likely to turn turtle.

The durability of the class has indeed been greatly influenced by the basic soundness of the Comet's design and adaptability to change, It is certainly a tribute to the skills of Lowndes Johnson that in today's competitive racing, boats as old as their skippers can still be found in the winner circle, But credit is also due to the long standing dedication and concern of Comet sailors. Through a strong organization, the class has consistently pursued the careful review of new ideas and technologies and adopted those compatible with the one design concept. This course has certainly proved on the mark for the Comet.